ARTICLE
Auteur(s) : Jean-Pierre
Caliman1, André Berthaud2, Bernard
Dubos3, Bertrand Tailliez3
1P.O. Box 1348, 28000 Pekanbaru Riau, Indonesia
2Ed. Gato Pardo 300N, Avenida Gonzalez Suarez N32-12,
Quito, Ecuador
3Boulevard de La Lironde, TA 80/PS3, 34398 Montpellier
Cedex 05, France
Since the beginning of the 20th century, oil palm cultivation has
developed in successive waves, driven by the enthusiasm of farmers,
of the pre- or post-colonial local authorities, and of certain
major development companies, firstly in tropical and equatorial
Africa, from where the oil palm originates, then in Latin America
and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, yields have increased from a
few hundred tonnes of oil per hectare in the 1920s [1], to more
than 7.5 t of palm products/ha mentioned quite frequently today,
which are average figures that are sometimes recorded on areas
amounting to tens of thousands of hectares. Such a performance is
the result of ongoing improvements, be it to cultural techniques,
the genetic characteristics of the seeds used, the effectiveness of
crop protection, or CPO and palm kernel oil extraction
techniques.For many decades, cropping system sustainability was
ensured by careful and wise management based on the know-how and
rationality of smallholders. On estate plantations or at national
smallholder assistance centres, it sometimes led to formalized
instructions or agricultural practice guides.The experimental and
scientific approach proposed by agricultural research has gradually
contributed to the development and economic sustainability of the
system ([2]: special report entitled "Recherches agronomiques pour
le développement et durabilité" OCL, vol. 5, n° 2 March/April
1998), even in very critical situations where such sustainability
has had numerous occasions to be questioned [3]. On the other hand,
the example of Latin American plantations devastated by bud rot,
although exceptional, helps us to keep in mind the potential
dangers of the systems that have been developed.The definition of
sustainability recently took on an environmental dimension and a
social dimension that were not previously taken into account in
agricultural guides/instructions unless they had a direct
short-term impact on the economic sustainability of the activity in
question. Increasing pressure from NGOs and consumers for
sustainable development in all 3 of its dimensions is leading the
oil palm industry to revise its farming system towards rational
management of cultural practices, requiring sometimes significant
changes in farmer attitudes, and why not in the planting systems
themselves.This pressure has led to recent initiatives in the
profession and the creation in 2003 (legally in April 2004) of a
round table on sustainable palm oil production (see article H.
Omont in this OCL issue), acknowledging the potential risk of a
major impact associated with this crop that is specific to fragile
ecological and social zones.The first meeting of the round table
(Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2003) provided an opportunity to start
defining sustainability for palm oil and compiling a code of good
practice to be applied throughout the production chain. The second
meeting (Jakarta, Indonesia, 2004) launched work to define
sustainability criteria that will have to be respected by all those
working in sectors covered by the round table. These criteria,
listed in the appendix A, notably include several principles
relative to respecting legal, economic, technical, environmental
and social aspects, plus a further chapter specific to setting up
new plantations.Among the criteria presented, the "long-term
maintenance and improvement of soil fertility" is undoubtedly the
one that has attracted the greatest attention during the
development of this crop worldwide, be it from farmers or
researchers. However, although the need to improve soil protection
on slopes is universally acknowledged, it has not been
systematically applied, probably because it usually requires
additional investment when the plantation is set up, at a time when
funding is more difficult to find.The other agronomic criteria do
not appear to be followed with the same intensity or uniformity,
depending on the farmers or the criteria, as we shall see later in
this article.We shall attempt to assess the situation in terms of
specifically agronomic and agri-environmental aspects; the other
aspects will be covered in other articles to appear in this issue
of OCL. We shall also attempt to determine what agricultural
research is required to ensure success.
Good agricultural practices
The first reaction when aspiring to sustainable production,
irrespective of the limits of its definition, consists in applying
"good" agricultural practices.
As already mentioned in the introduction, when oil palm
cultivation began, these good agricultural practices consisted in
careful and wise management designed to pass down a fertile and
productive production tool to future generations, by virtue of the
knowledge, know-how and, sometimes maybe, the very instinct of the
farmer.
With the development of "estate" plantations, these practices
often became formalized by way of manuals describing the different
production techniques, the purpose of which was to standardize
practices within estates and "guarantee" optimum productivity,
hence economic sustainability.
Logically speaking, this aspect amounts to criterion 3.1. of the
technical component proposed by the members of the round table (see
Appendix A): "Plantation and mill operating procedures are
appropriately documented …".
These oil palm cultivation guides, which are often confidential
inside each large private company, have been completed by numerous
publications from international or local research and development
organizations, in the form of agricultural practice-advice
regularly updated as knowledge progresses and in line with the
results of agricultural research. The monthly advice notes produced
by IRHO (Institut de Recherches pour les Huiles et Oléagineux),
which were launched in 1961, and subsequently published in several
languages for more than thirty years, are the most comprehensive
example [4, 5]. Technical datasheets published by national research
centres are also intended to be ways of disseminating good
agricultural practices, as are the handbooks published more
recently [6-8].
It is important to note that even if direct reference to
environmental impacts, as such, was only rarely made, many of the
recommended cultural practices directly or indirectly incorporated
aspects relative to reducing environmental risks. For instance, in
the first half of the 20th century, it was possible to read how
important it was to protect the soil with a legume cover crop after
forest clearance when setting up plantations; so as to reduce the
risks of erosion and improve soil fertility; there are therefore
frequent references to land development measures on slopes, and
practices to limit erosion and water runoff [9-12], etc.
The initiatives taken by the round table to promote systematic
reference to a code of good practice are an important step and
should also encourage organizations supervising local smallholders
to take similar initiatives, so as to benefit from recommendations
that enable them to more effectively preserve their family
heritage.
Rational input management
Maintaining soil fertility
Managing the chemical fertility of soils by applying fertilizers is
undoubtedly the aspect to which farmers have paid the greatest
attention. However, it has to be acknowledged that the aim was
essentially one of productivity (achieve maximum yields),
environmental aspects, and the conservation of natural resources
being totally absent from the initial considerations.
Nowadays, despite knowing more about how oil palms function, and
the better means of communication and improved dissemination of
knowledge, it is still often found that numerous plantations do not
have a fertilization plan worthy of that knowledge. This is
undoubtedly due to the fact that oil palms make use of substantial
amounts of fertilizer, product prices have been generally
favourable, with relatively short periods of tension, masking any
mistaken management with excessive inputs.
Yet rational input management, specifically mineral fertilizers,
ought to be a priority for farmers, since it is so true that it
generally results in higher profitability, whilst having a positive
impact on the environment and on natural resources. Its feasibility
and efficacy, which are based on field trials, the monitoring of
oil palm mineral nutrition, and good knowledge of the environment
thereby enabling site specific management, have been demonstrated
in many situations.
They have been reported in a certain number of publications
[13-15]. The method is based on plotting curves to see how oil palm
yields and leaf contents respond to the fertilizer rates applied
(figures 1, 2, 3). A rational choice of input levels can then be
made in line with the objectives fixed.
Its power even makes it a unique tool for drawing up
recommendations for smallholdings (( figure 1 )): the response
curves drawn up for neighbouring large estates can be used to fix
priorities, whether it be for choosing the fertilizer type, its
formulation or the application rate in an environment as
diversified as smallholdings.
It is therefore a veritable decision support method, by which
adaptations can be made to both general and specific situations
that involve both economic conditions (product value, fertilizer
costs, cash-flow availability, etc.), farmers’ production targets,
and why not environmental considerations, by superposing an
environmental risk curve (( figure 4 )) derived from
the difference between the calculated mineral nutrient requirements
of the plant to ensure its growth and production, and the nutrients
actually provided by fertilization. This type of curve provides an
opportunity for a first evaluation, at a very global scale, of the
amount of nutrient that could be lost and would represent a danger
for the environment, as well as for the natural resources. In the
example shown ( figure
2 ), around 35 % of the recommended rate of urea will
be not be used by the palms to insure their performance. In fact
part of this N excess might be uptaken by the palms as luxurious
nutrition, while the remaining part will be lost either in the
atmosphere through volatilisation and emission, or in surface and
ground water through runoff and leaching, depending on the rainfall
pattern.
The method also recommends five-yearly monitoring of chemical
fertility levels in the soil, combining leaf analyses (LSU) and
soil analyses (SSU). By monitoring in this way, it can be checked
that the fertilization strategy is conducive to long-term
maintenance, or improvement where necessary, of soil fertility
levels.
Managing agricultural waste
Management of oil mill waste (empty bunches, effluents) has now
joined mineral nutrition and soil fertility management.
This waste comes in considerable volumes, with one tonne of
empty fruit bunches (EFB) and almost 3 tonnes of effluent for each
tonne of crude palm oil produced. For environmental reasons, their
treatment and application in plantations have gradually replaced
EFB incineration, or effluent discharges into rivers. In some
countries, such as Ecuador, no new mills can be constructed without
a prior environmental impact study. Temporary mill closures have
even been reported, following operating faults in effluent
treatment systems.
The mineral characteristics of these by-products mean that they
can be used to replace mineral fertilizers. Moreover, organic
material in EFB form can be used to improve soils physically
(improved infiltration speed [16]), chemically and biologically,
notably in low-fertility zones (sandy soils improved by repeated
EFB applications).
A good understanding of mineral nutrient release rates from EFB
has made it possible to achieve a level of rational management,
with true incorporation of their use in oil palm fertilization
plans (figures 5, 6). Thus, application rates and frequencies, but
also levels of supplementary mineral fertilization where necessary,
can be rationally established in line with environmental conditions
and the status of the palms.
Likewise, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the
biological impact of those applications. For example, it has led to
applications being halted in immature plantings in African regions
affected by vascular wilt. In the Llanos region of Colombia, field
application is banned for part of the year to prevent the
proliferation of a fly that goes on to attack the livestock of
neighbouring cattle farmers.
Effluent management has yet to reach such a sophisticated degree
of management. This is no doubt partly due to the considerable
volumes involved, and to the "liquid" state of the product, which
not only calls for relatively more difficult application systems,
but also for water and mineral balances that bring into play water
flow considerations in addition to mineral fluxes. Consequently, in
many cases, the mineral balance remains excessive, hence the
environmental situation is not totally satisfactory.
The technique more recently developed for by-product composting
[17-19] appears to be very attractive for treating and
simultaneously making use of all these by-products (EFB, effluents,
and why not fibres and kernel cake where necessary). Yet so far, it
remains virtually unadopted by farmers, despite the undeniable
technical and economic advantages it offers.
Controlling diseases and pests
Pesticide use is also an essential concern when considering good
agricultural practices. The situation is highly contrasted, with:
- – on the one hand, crop protection from pests largely
bringing into play IPM, with consequent minimum use of
pesticides.
Host plants of predatory insects are frequently planted on the
edge of plots and receive particular attention (( figure 7 )). Although their
efficiency sometimes remains to be confirmed, it reveals a general
intent that is worth mentioning. In Latin America, many estates
even allow a certain woody regrowth to develop in interrows not
used for transport, also to encourage beneficial insect life ((
figure 8 )).
- – and on the other hand, weed control largely based on
intensive herbicide use, in most Southeast Asian estates, but also
on smallholdings in the same region. For instance, soils that have
become virtually bare are often seen in oil palm plantations due to
the intensive and often abusive use of herbicides, even on moderate
to steep slopes with dramatic consequences for erosion. This
phenomenon appears to be less intense in Africa, and especially in
Latin America, where woody regrowth is judiciously managed, as
already mentioned.
Hence these estates in Southeast Asia developed over tens of
thousands of hectares, which have not used any insecticides in
2004, whereas herbicide use, all commercial products combined,
reached 1 litre/ha on average in the same year.
It has to be said that predators have relatively little effect
on oil palm cultivation, especially in Southeast Asia, less so in
Africa and Latin America, and that the main diseases that develop
in Asia (Ganoderma), Africa (vascular wilt) and Latin America (bud
rot) do not lend themselves to chemical treatment, either due to
the lack of an effective molecule against the disease (soil-borne
fungi), or due to physical difficulties associated with the crop
itself: its perennial nature and intense root development
preventing soil treatment. Consequently, attempts at control are
focusing on agronomic, and especially genetic aspects (search for
genes of resistance).
Sustainability and agricultural research
Should current farming systems be totally called into doubt, in
favour of purely organic farming for example, or can they be
rationalized, from the launching of new projects right up to the
management of plantations once they have been created?
Today, one of the main questions is to know whether agricultural
research will be able to tackle the concerns associated with
sustainable oil palm development. In the two situations just
mentioned, a total rethink of the farming system i.e. organic
farming system (although its development will most probably be
limited, as related to specific market), or its rational
management, agricultural research needs to play a large role, in
order to provide strong scientific backing prior to any cultural
decision.
Indeed, in the first example of organic agriculture, particular
care needs to be taken to ensure that there is no loss of fertility
in the environment. This can only be validated through studies of
short, medium and long-term mineral balances. But it is then also
necessary to ensure that fertility is not maintained by a simple
geographical or "social" transfer of fertility (case of
agricultural populations directly or indirectly "selling" their
organic matter for income).
In the case of rational farming system management, agricultural
research needs to acquire sufficiently fine-tuned knowledge of how
the plant and the environment function, and of their interaction,
so as to be able to propose agricultural practices and management
tools enabling production targets to be reached that are
eco-friendly and compatible with the preservation of natural
resources.
After supplying farmers with a good practice guide, then
defining the criteria for sustainable palm oil production, it is
essential to develop indicators capable of assessing the impact
that any cultural practice might have either on the environment or
on the crop itself. These agri-environmental indicators, as defined
by OECD [20-22] need to provide information on the status of each
situation, monitor the progress achieved, and thereby cover all the
agronomic aspects associated with oil palm cultivation. If they are
to be validated, they need to be built on sound scientific
foundations, which means improving knowledge, as already
stated.
For instance, studies on mineral nutrient cycles, the
establishment of short, medium and long-term mineral balances,
knowledge of the bioavailability of nutrients in the soil, but also
of how the plant functions, are essential for rationally managing
the mineral nutrition of oil palms in their environment. Better
knowledge of the specificity of each type of planting material is
needed, so as to match input management to it as closely as
possible, and cover the plant’s requirements, whilst taking the
capacity of the environment into consideration.
Assessing the environmental risks associated with oil mill
by-product management is another challenge that should lead on to
the definition of optimum conditions for applying effluents or
other by-products (EFB, compost) in accordance with the
pedoclimatic properties of each situation. Another necessity is to
assess the biodegradability of by-products such as effluents
depending on soil characteristics.
The impact of natural cover crops (woody regrowth or others) in
oil palm plantations needs to be carefully studied, to determine
how they are involved in mineral nutrient cycles and in the water
cycle, but also their true impact on biodiversity in several of
these aspects (plant and animal), as their influence is no doubt
not limited merely to serving as a host plant for certain
predators.
It is therefore a new challenge that awaits agricultural
research that once again amounts to "how to produce, but how to
produce better".
Appendix A. RSPO Criteria for sustainable palm oil
production
(See www.sustainable-palmoil.org for updates)
A.1. Principle 1: Compliance with applicable laws and
regulations
Criterion 1.1 There is compliance with all applicable local,
national and ratified international laws and regulations
Criterion 1.2 The right to use the land can be demonstrated
Criterion 1.3 The right to the land does not diminish the legal
or customary rights of other users
A.2. Principle 2: Management planning that aims to achieve
long-term economic and financial viability for plantation and
mills
Criterion 2.1 Optimal productivity and quality of produce is
achieved on planted land through appropriate agronomic and
management practices
Criterion 2.2 Plantation and mill practices are optimal to
maintain production of high quality CPO
A.3. Principle 3: Use of appropriate best practices in
plantations and mills
Criterion 3.1 Plantation and mill operating procedures are
appropriately documented and consistently implemented and monitored
Criterion 3.2 Practices must maintain, and if necessary,
improve, soil fertility at a level that ensures high and sustained
yield
Criterion 3.3 Practices must minimise and control erosion and
degradation of soils
Criterion 3.4 Practices must maintain the quality and quantity
of surface and ground water
Criterion 3.5 Pests, diseases, weeds and invasive introduced
species are effectively managed whilst pesticide use is minimised
through using appropriate Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques
Criterion 3.6 Pesticides banned by national legislation shall
not be used and any other herbicides and pesticides should be used
in a way that does not endanger health or environment
Criterion 3.7 The on and off-site impacts of the plantation and
mill management activities should be adequately assessed,
controlled and monitored
Criterion 3.8 An assessment of the social impacts, both positive
and negative, of proposed operations in existing plantations is
carried out and the results are incorporated into management
planning and implemented in operational procedures
Criterion 3.9 There is appropriate implementation of
occupational health and safety requirements
Criterion 3.10 All staff, workers and smallholders are
adequately trained and competent
A.4. Principle 4: Environmental responsibility and
conservation of natural resources and biodiversity
Criterion 4.1 An understanding of the plant and animal species and
habitats that exist inside and around the plantation shall be
established
Criterion 4.2 A plan to conserve and restore biodiversity
in and around the plantation shall be developed, implemented and
monitored
Criterion 4.3 Waste from the plantation and the mill is reduced,
recycled and re-used and any waste produced is disposed of in an
environmentally and socially responsible manner
Criterion 4.4 Efficiency of energy use should be maximised
whilst minimising fossil fuel use
Criterion 4.5 Use of fire for waste disposal and for preparing
land for replanting is avoided except in exceptional circumstances
and should always be consistent with the ASEAN Policy on Zero
Burning
Criterion 4.6 Plans to reduce pollution and emissions, including
greenhouse gases, should be developed, implemented and
monitored
A.5. Principle 5: Responsible consideration of employees and
of individuals and communities affected by plantations and
mills
Criterion 5.1 There is an effective, open and transparent method
for communication and consultation between companies, local
communities and other affected or interested parties
Criterion 5.2 There is a documented system for dealing with
complaints and grievances which is implemented and effective
Criterion 5.3 Any negotiations concerning compensation for loss
of legal or customary rights should be dealt with through a
documented system that enables local communities and other
stakeholders to express their views through their own
representative institutions or other forms of collective
bargaining
Criterion 5.4 All workers have acceptable pay
Criterion 5.5 All workers have acceptable conditions and the
rights of workers to voluntarily organise and negotiate with their
employers shall be guaranteed
Criterion 5.6 Child labour is not used unless children are
involved as part of small family owned and run enterprises and
under adult supervision or an integrated education programme
Criterion 5.7 Plantations and mills deal fairly and
transparently with smallholders and other local businesses
Criterion 5.8 Plantations and mills contribute to local
development wherever possible
A.6. Principle 6: Commitment to continual improvement in all
areas of activity
Criterion 6.1 Plantation companies should regularly monitor and
review their activities and develop and implement action plans that
ensure continual improvement in all operations
A.7. Principle 7: Responsible development of new
plantations
Criterion 7.1 A comprehensive assessment of impacts or formal
environmental impact assessment shall be undertaken prior to
establishing new plantations or expanding existing ones and the
results incorporated into plans and operations
Criterion 7.2 Soil and topographic surveys and site planning
should be conducted prior to the establishment of plantations and
the results of these should be incorporated into plans and
operations
Criterion 7.3 Primary forest and any area containing one or more
High Conservation Values must not be converted to plantation
Criterion 7.4 Extensive planting on steep, marginal and fragile
soils is avoided
Criterion 7.5 A comprehensive, participatory social impact
assessment is carried out for all new plantings and the results are
incorporated into all planning and operations
Criterion 7.6 No plantations shall be established on indigenous
peoples’ land without their free, prior and informed consent as
expressed through their own representative institutions
Criterion 7.7 Customary rights and sacred sites are recognised
and respected
Criterion 7.8 Local people are fairly compensated for land
acquisitions
Criterion 7.9 Use of fire in the preparation of new plantations
is avoided other than in specific situations that are consistent
with the ASEAN Policy on Zero Burning
A.8. Principle 8: Commitment to transparency
Criterion 8.1 Plantation managers should provide full information
to other stakeholders, except where this is prevented by commercial
confidentiality or where disclosure of information would result in
negative environmental or social outcomes
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