ARTICLE
Auteur(s) : Ulla Freitas1, Marie Leblanc2
1Lonza Ltd, Muenchensteinerstr. 38, 4002 Basel,
Switzerland
2Lonza France Sarl, 55 rue Aristide Briand, 92309
Levallois-Perret Cedex, France
What is DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)?
Fatty acids are classified according to their degree of saturation
(number of double bonds), into saturated fatty acids,
monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs). PUFAs can further be classified into two different series
that cannot be converted into each other: omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs
[1].
There are distinct types of omega-3 fatty acids that are
ingested with the diet and used by the body. These are
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) as well as
alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Whereas ALA can be found most
abundantly in foods, it has become clear that DHA is the most
important omega-3 fatty acid for human health, particularly in the
areas of brain, heart and eye health. It occurs naturally as a
building block of cell membranes [1, 2] and contributes to membrane
properties such as fluidity, flexibility and permeability [3].
Sources of DHA
DHA in the body is derived mainly from intake of fish and seafood.
Fatty fish, such as herring, mackerel, tuna or wild salmon, is the
most substantial source of DHA [4]. Table
1 gives an overview of the DHA contents in fish and
seafood.
Nevertheless it is well-known that dietary DHA intake with a
typical Western diet is well below recommended values. It is also
clear that vegetarians and those who do not eat fish get very
little DHA with their diet [5]. Therefore, the consumption of
dietary supplements and functional food enriched with DHAid™
constitutes an attractive option in order to achieve the
recommended intake. It is important to note that DHAid™ represents
an allergen-free and vegetarian source of DHA that comes from
renewable resources and does not contribute to the common problem
of overfishing of the sea.
Table 1 DHA content of fish and seafood [4].
|
Fish species
|
|
|
Atlantic salmon
|
1,457
|
|
Pacific mackerel
|
1,195
|
|
Atlantic herring
|
1,105
|
|
Tuna
|
223
|
|
Haddock
|
162
|
|
Shrimps
|
144
|
|
Alaska king crab
|
118
|
Conversion between different omega-3 fatty acids
Nature has foreseen a pathway to produce DHA from the precursor
omega-3 fatty acid ALA in the human body. During this process, ALA
is enzymatically converted to EPA and further to DHA. An important
question is whether dietary intake of ALA, can provide sufficient
amounts of EPA and DHA by conversion through the omega-3 PUFA
elongation-desaturation pathway. ALA is present in marked amounts
in plant sources, including green leafy vegetables and
commonly-consumed oils such as rape-seed and soybean oils, so that
increased intake of this fatty acid would be easier to achieve than
an increase in fish consumption.
However, it has become clear that the dietary intake of the
precursor ALA cannot make up for the low dietary intake of DHA.
Humans are very poor DHA synthesizers from precursor omega-3 fatty
acids [6]. Aging, illness and stress, as well as excessive amounts
of omega-6 rich oils (corn, safflower, sunflower, cotton seed) can
all compromise conversion [7]. Various human supplementation
studies have addressed the question of the bioconversion process
and have concluded that conversion of ALA to EPA is limited and
conversion further to DHA is extremely low [8-10]. Aging, illness
and stress contribute to this limited conversion process as well as
the excessive intake of omega-6 rich oils due to competition for
the same enzymes [7].
In addition, there is also a certain degree of retro-conversion
from DHA back to EPA [11]. EPA but not DHA concentrations in plasma
were observed to increase in response to dietary EPA intake.
In respect of this background, uptake of dietary DHA might be
critical for maintaining adequate membrane DHA concentrations [12].
Therefore, Health Organisations throughout the world have made
specific recommendations to increase DHA levels [13-16].
In a recent study including more than 100 healthy vegetarians, 8
weeks of DHAid™ supplementation was found to significantly increase
their DHA and EPA plasma levels compared with placebo (figure 1) [17]. It is
worth mentioning that exclusive DHA supplementation also increased
EPA plasma phospholipid levels, which may be explained by increased
retro-conversion from DHA to EPA.
Benefits from DHAid™
Pregnancy
Under the present dietary conditions, maternal intake of omega-3
fatty acids is insufficient to keep up with the increased demand
during pregnancy [18]. Especially in the last trimester, the period
during which much of the fetus’ brain, eye and nervous system
development occurs, maternal DHA levels decline significantly [19].
Maternal and infant DHA status becomes reduced after each following
pregnancy, which is especially important in pregnancies spaced at
short intervals or with multiple births [20].
Most national and international authorities therefore recommend
increasing DHA intake during pregnancy and lactation to at least
200 mg/day [13, 15, 21].
After birth, the newborn baby continues to obtain DHA from the
mother via breast milk [22]. The DHA content of the breast milk is
directly related to the dietary DHA intake of the mother,
supplementation with DHA increases the DHA content in human milk
[23, 24]. Prenatal and early postnatal positive DHA status is
thought to have important consequences on the growth and function
of the central nervous system (CNS) and, consequently, on
neurological and cognitive development of the child [22,
25-27].
In addition, human pregnancy supplementation trials with omega-3
fatty acids have shown a significant reduction in the incidence of
premature delivery [28, 29], and also of post-natal depressions of
the mother [30, 31].
Brain health
DHA is a major structural and functional building block of the
brain – about 30% of the structural lipids of the grey matter are
DHA. A change in the fatty acid composition of synaptic membranes
can affect the functions of neuronal membrane receptors, ion
channels and enzymes [32]. DHA is required during fetal and child
development for the growth and functional development of the brain
[33]. Hence it is not surprising that DHA deficiency in early life
has been associated with a variety of learning and cognitive
disorders [18, 22]. DHA is required during fetal and child
development for the growth and functional development of the brain
and eye [34, 35]. The significant positive association between
maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake during pregnancy and the
children’s mental processing scores at 4 years of age suggest that
optimization of the docosahexaenoic acid status of expectant women
may offer long-term developmental benefits to their children [18,
22].
In adolescents, DHA supplementation was found to prevent
aggression enhancement during times of mental stress, such as in
exam periods [36]. In adults, DHA maintains normal brain function,
and scientific evidence links reduced DHA levels to a number of
mental disorders including depression, dementia, schizophrenia and
Alzheimer’s disease [2, 37-42].
Depression and other mental diseases in elderly subjects are
associated with significantly lower omega-3 fatty acid levels than
in same age control subjects [7, 43-45].
Psychological stress in humans induces the production of
proinflammatory cytokines of the omega-6 series which can be
increased by an imbalance of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids in the
blood. There is evidence that such an overproduction is involved in
the pathophysiology of major depression [7]. DHAid™ may contribute
to a healthy brain throughout life.
Visual function
The importance of DHA in retinal function is reflected by the high
concentration of DHA especially in the retinal photoreceptor. About
30-40% of the fatty acid composition of the rod photoreceptor outer
segments of the retina is DHA. Increased dietary intake of omega-3
fatty acids increases the omega-3 fatty acid content of the rod
outer segments. Biophysical and biochemical properties of DHA may
affect photoreceptor membrane function by altering permeability,
fluidity, thickness and lipid phase properties [26]. The tissue DHA
status affects retinal cell signalling mechanisms involved in
signal transduction [46].
DHA is involved in the intercellular signalling pathway that
transforms light signals to neuronal activity. Thus, DHA plays an
important role in eye health during the prenatal phase and in the
first years of life as well as in the elderly [26, 46].
Several human studies support the importance of adequate
maternal DHA consumption during pregnancy for the maturation of the
visual system of infants [18, 47]. Various clinical studies in
infants and meta-analyses suggest that greater visual acuity in
infancy is associated with increased intake of long-chain PUFAs.
Reduced visual acuity has consistently been observed in primate and
rodent offspring subjected to dietary conditions during gestation
that result in significant reductions in retinal concentrations of
DHA. Further it has been observed that functions of the retina
mature earlier when infants are supplemented with DHA [18, 34].
In addition, diets high in omega-3 fatty acids and especially
DHA may act in a protective role against age-associated pathology
to the vascular and neuronal retina in the elderly [48, 49].
Cardiovascular health
Although a traditional Eskimo diet contains much more fat than
commonly recommended, Eskimo populations seem to be immune to heart
disease [6, 50]. It is now recognized that this is thanks to the
intake of large amounts of fish and marine mammals, which are rich
in omega-3 PUFAs [51]. Similar studies in Japan, comparing
inhabitants from fishing villages with farming villagers, also
showed that a higher intake of oily fish resulted in a reduced risk
of heart disease.
Various scientific studies clearly demonstrate that a high
intake of omega-3 fatty acids, especially DHA, correlates with
heart health [52, 53]. Interestingly, the dietary precursor
essential fatty acid of EPA and DHA, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA),
has not consistently been found to have beneficial effects on
cardiovascular health [54, 55].
The heart health effects of DHA include effects on triglycerides
(figure 2),
high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, platelet function,
endothelial and vascular function, blood pressure, cardiac
excitability, measures of oxidative stress as well as pro- and
anti-inflammatory cytokines [17, 56-62].
Increased consumption of dietary omega-3 PUFA increases the
concentration of omega-3 PUFA in plasma phospholipids, which is
associated with a protective effect on cardiovascular diseases and
lower plasma homocystein levels [63].
Two large intervention studies have shown that fish or fish oil
consumption have a significant protective effect against fatal
cardiovascular disease. The DART-Study (Diet and Reinfarcion Trial)
demonstrated that relatively low dosages of omega-3 fatty acids
reduced the risk of a secondary coronary event and resulted in a
30% reduction in mortality attributable to a reduction in CVD death
[60].
In the GISSI Prevenzione Trial, which included more than 11’000
subjects that had survived a heart attack, the risk of
cardiovascular death was significantly lowered by 17% after 3
months of supplementation with DHA/EPA [64, 65].
A low (≤ 4%) red blood cell membrane content of EPA + DHA
(omega-3 index) has recently been identified as an indicator for
increased risk of death from coronary heart disease, whereas an
omega-3 index ≥ 8% was associated with the greatest
cardio-protection [66]. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled
intervention study with 114 healthy vegetarian subjects,
supplementation with DHAidTM during 8 weeks could
significantly increase the omega-3 index [17].
Mori and colleagues concluded from a study with 59 mildly
hyperlipidemic but otherwise healthy men that DHA supplementation
is the principal omega-3 fatty acid in fish, since DHA but not EPA
was found to lower blood pressure and heart rate in humans
[67].
Current dietary intakes of DHA in North America and Europe are
well below those recommended by the American Heart Association for
the management of patients with coronary heart disease [68].
Dietary supplements and food containing DHAidTM
therefore can be regarded as an ideal way to increase DHA levels
and thus increase cardiovascular health.
DHAid™ production process
Using naturally occurring microalgae, Lonza’s innovative technology
allows DHA oils to be produced with superior quality.
During the unique production process in fermentation vessels,
microalgae are grown in large volumes and accumulate significant
quantities of DHA. Then, DHA is extracted from the dried microalgae
and refined in processes that are very similar to those used in the
production of conventional vegetable oils.
DHAid™ quality & safety
DHAid™ quality at a glance:
- – Accordance with HACCP and GMP standards for food
products.
- – Production ISO 9001 certified.
- – Production based on renewable resources.
- – Full traceability.
- – Free of any materials of animal origin.
- – Free of any genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
- – Allergen free.
- – Vegetarian source of DHA.
- – High concentration of DHA.
- – Clean taste.
DHAid™ safety at a glance:
- – Self-affirmed GRAS.
- – Solvent free production process.
- – Approved according to Novel Food in EU, Australia and
New Zealand.
- – Free of any potential contaminants that are discussed
for seafood [69].
- – Multi-step fermentation process of DHAid™ uses a
non-toxigenic and non-pathogenic marine protist, Ulkenia sp.
- – Extensive human, animal and in vitro Tox studies confirm
the safety of DHAid™ from microalgae [70-72].
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